Center for the Prevention of Genocide

Large-Scale Massacres in Northern Uganda:

LRA-Perpetrated Violence Escalates

The Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA), a cult rebel insurgency, has terrorized the northern regions of Uganda since its emergence in 1987. The guerrilla tactics employed by this Christianity-inspired militia have threatened Ugandan stability and hindered development for the past seventeen years. In March 2002, the Ugandan government commenced Operation “Iron Fist,” an offensive against LRA bases in southern Sudan . Although the government has declared this offensive a success, LRA activity has since escalated in the region. The operation forced the rebels to relocate to northern Uganda , where they have intensified their efforts and increased their sphere of influence.

The proclaimed objective of the LRA is to overthrow the current Ugandan government and institute rule according to the Ten Commandments. Nonetheless, it is the civilian population, not the Ugandan government or military, which is victimized by LRA attacks. The rebels murder, mutilate, and rape civilians, abduct children to utilize as soldiers and sex slaves, and loot and burn villages and refugee camps. Most recently, the LRA commenced large-scale ambushes on internally displaced persons camps in the Lira district. Such attacks have claimed nearly 300 lives in February 2004 alone.

Additionally, the LRA initiated systematic assaults on Roman Catholic missions, clergy, and schoolchildren during the spring and summer months of 2003. LRA leader Joseph Kony reportedly ordered his followers to destroy Catholic missions and kill Roman Catholic clergy. As discussed in Articles 2 and 3 of the 1948 United Nations Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Genocide, such activity constitutes the incorporation of a genocidal campaign into this violent political rebellion.

History

The government of Uganda has been engaged in a civil war with the Lord’s Resistance Army since 1987. The LRA was founded in the Acholi region of northern Uganda by rebel leader Joseph Kony and was originally composed of former members of other resistance organizations and recruited Acholi youths (HRW: “Stolen Children”). For nearly two decades, the rebels have committed atrocities against Ugandan civilians in their quest for political control.

In 1994, the LRA began to collaborate with the government of Sudan (HRW: “Abducted and”). This relationship was established by the Sudanese as retribution for the support provided by Ugandan president Yoweri Museveni to the Sudan People’s Liberation Movement/Army (SPLM/A), a Sudanese rebel group. For six years, the government of Sudan supplied the LRA with direct military support while allowing the organization to maintain bases in the Eastern Equatoria Region of southern Sudan . It is from these bases that the LRA conducted its cross-border raids on northern Ugandan villages. In return for this favor, the LRA provided the Sudanese military with manpower for their battles against the SPLM/A (HRW: “Abducted and”). Meanwhile, the Ugandan rebels continuously replenished and increased their numbers by abducting thousands of children from the Gulu, Kitgum, and Pader districts of the Acholi region (ReliefWeb: “Eyewitness: Children”). This forced recruitment, paired with the support of the Sudanese government, perpetuated the rebel movement.

In 1999, the Ugandan and Sudanese governments signed a bilateral agreement, pledging to withdraw support from their respective rebel benefactors (HRW: “Stolen Children”). Sudanese commitment to this pledge was reinforced in 2001 when the LRA was declared a “terrorist organization” by the U.S. State Department (HRW: “Abducted and”). Consequently, the governments agreed upon a military plan for the definitive eradication of LRA forces. Under the plan, the Sudanese government “would permit the Ugandan People’s Defense Force (UPDF) to enter Sudan for the purpose of wiping out the LRA. The Sudanese government itself would not engage in any military action for that purpose, nor would it tolerate a UPDF-SPLM/A collaboration” (HRW: “Abducted and”).

The planned military offensive, Operation Iron Fist, commenced in March 2002 (AP: “Archbishop: Ugandan” 16 Jun 2003). The UPDF deployed nearly 10,000 troops to southern Sudan where they attacked numerous LRA camps (BBC News: “Uganda ’s rebels”). Although the offensive demonstrated the government’s commitment to addressing the LRA issue, the operation itself proved to be ineffectual (ReliefWeb: “Eyewitness: Children”). A number of the camps attacked by the UPDF were already deserted, and many of the LRA rebels remaining in the region successfully evaded the UPDF due to their familiarity with the territory. It has also been reported that the success of Operation Iron Fist was hindered by low morale and corruption within the UPDF itself (HRW: “Abducted and”).

This offensive, however, provoked extreme retaliation by the LRA (BBC News: “Uganda ’s rebels”). Having lost its means of support and place of refuge, the rebel group was forced to relocate to northern Uganda , where it has intensified its terrorization and brutalization of Ugandan civilians (HRW: “Uganda : Child”). Isolated villages, internally displaced persons camps, humanitarian relief convoys, and missions are especially susceptible to targeting by LRA forces. Additionally, the LRA has infiltrated further into the country and has commenced operations in eastern Uganda . Human Rights Watch reports that the LRA has abducted over 20,000 children since 1990, with 8,400 of these abductions occurring between June 2002 and May 2003 (HRW: “Abducted and”). Furthermore, over 1.1 million Ugandan civilians have been displaced as a result of the conflict (New Vision: “Rebels displace” 26 Sep 2003).

Civilians in the region hold little hope that LRA forces will soon be quelled by the UPDF, especially since new evidence indicates that the rebel movement is once again enjoying support from Sudanese military officials. Army officers have reportedly delivered truckloads of military supplies to Kony and his contingent in recent months (AP Worldstream: “Archbishop: Ugandan” 16 June 2003). These reports were verified by the Sudanese minister of defense, who “conceded that some army officers had resumed contact with Kony for purely personal profit” (New Vision: “Sudanese Official” 31 Jul 2003). The Ugandan government has accused Sudan of sanctioning this activity in return for LRA support for the Sudanese offensive against the SPLM/A. The Sudanese government has denied these allegations, promising that those military officials collaborating with the LRA would be punished (New Vision: “Sudanese Official” 31 Jul 2003).

The Ugandan government continues to battle the LRA rebellion. Last fall, the Ugandan and Sudanese governments renewed the bilateral agreement that authorizes UPDF access to southern Sudan for limited military actions against LRA rebels. The two governments agreed upon a three-month extension of this protocol on September 12, 2003 (IRIN: “Operation Iron” 15 Sep 2003). In addition to this international military effort, the Ugandan government remains committed to its national offensive against the rebellion. The UPDF has enlisted the assistance of local volunteer militias, such as the “Arrow Group” in the Teso region, to more effectively pursue LRA forces active in northern and eastern Uganda (New Vision: “Arrow Group” 20 Aug 2003). The continuing violence, however, has led some to question the effectiveness of current military efforts. Although the government claims to have “nearly defeated” the rebel insurgency, the recent large-scale attacks on IDP camps indicate otherwise (IRIN News: “Rebels Kill” 5 Feb 2004).

Key Players

The Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA) has developed over nearly two decades and is rooted in earlier Ugandan rebel movements. Alice Lakwena, a young Acholi native of northern Uganda , founded the primary predecessor to the LRA in 1985 (HRW: “Abducted and”). Claiming to be empowered by the native spirit Lakwena, she ordered her “Holy Spirit Movement” (HSM) to take up arms against the Museveni government. Lakwena’s spiritual cult received extensive military assistance from the Ugandan People’s Democratic Army, another rebel group composed of Acholi supporters of fallen Prime Minister Tito Okello Lutwa. Despite this support, HSM was quickly defeated by the Ugandan military, and Lakwena fled to Kenya in 1986.

Joseph Kony, claiming to have inherited the spiritual powers of Lakwena, formed his own rebel contingency in 1987 (HRW: “Abducted and”). Initially entitled the Lord’s [Salvation] Army and later named the United [Salvation] Christian Army, the movement developed into the Lord’s Resistance Army in 1994 (HRW: “Abducted and”). The proclaimed objective of the LRA is to overthrow the current Ugandan government and institute political rule according to the Ten Commandments and its version of Christianity (BBC: “Timeline Uganda ”). The atrocities that Kony and his followers have committed in their pursuit of this end include numerous civilian massacres, the abduction and forced military recruitment of thousands of children, and the looting and destruction of hundreds of private homes and businesses (Reuters: “A voice” 4 Jul 2003).

The Government of Uganda and the Uganda People’s Defense Force (UPDF) have been intensively targeting the LRA since the launch of Operation Iron Fist in March 2002. The success of this initial offensive into southern Sudan was limited, and the UPDF has yet to eradicate the LRA from northern and eastern Uganda (ReliefWeb: “Eyewitness: Children”). In March 2003, the government ordered another full-fledged offensive against the rebels after the LRA disregarded a unilateral ceasefire proclaimed by Kony and continued attacking civilians in the Acholi region (BBC: “Timeline: Uganda ”). Attempts at peace talks between the Ugandan government and the LRA have thus far proven unsuccessful.

The purpose of the UPDF and its affiliate defense units is the protection of Ugandan civilians against the abuses characteristic of LRA attacks. Recent reports, however, accuse UPDF soldiers of committing some of the same crimes for which the LRA is condemned, such as rape, torture, and the recruitment of children for military purposes. Human Rights Watch reports,

“UPDF forces and officials of other government-related military security agencies have committed multiple abuses of the rights of northern Ugandans, including summary execution, torture, rape, child recruitment, and inhuman living conditions of detention in unauthorized detention locations. They are rarely prosecuted for crimes committed against civilians. Even when UPDF abuses have been investigated, the investigations have sometimes been kept internal and therefore have created an appearance of impunity, which has not improved public trust” (HRW: “Abducted and”).

In response to this report, a UPDF spokesman questioned the reliability and credibility of Human Rights Watch sources, although President Museveni himself has “admitted that the Army is not entirely made up of angels” (BBC: “Uganda army” 16 Jul 2003).

The Government of Sudan provided military assistance to the LRA from 1994 to 1999 (HRW: “Abducted and”). In 1999, however, Sudan signed an agreement with Uganda in which it pledged to revoke its support from the LRA. This agreement eased diplomatic tensions between the two countries, and in 2002, Sudan allowed the Ugandan government to launch Operation Iron Fist, a cross-border offensive against the rebel group. Recently, evidence has arisen that indicates renewed collaboration between Sudanese military officials and the LRA (VOA News: “Allegations of” 27 Aug 2003). Although the Sudanese government admits that some officials have resumed relations with the LRA for “personal profit,” it denies authorizing this activity.

The Acholi People, an ethnic group constituting only four percent of the Ugandan population, comprises the majority of persons in the Gulu, Kitgum and Pader districts of northern Uganda, a region commonly referred to as “Acholiland” (U.S.: “Background Note”). Because of its geographic proximity to LRA bases in southern Sudan , members of the Acholi ethnicity have been the primary victims of LRA attacks. Furthermore, it is this region that was infiltrated by LRA rebels upon the commencement of Operation Iron Fist, subjecting the area to intensified rebel activity since March 2002 (HRW: “Uganda : Child”). The perpetrators of LRA attacks are also principally Acholi since the rebel movement originated in this region (HRW: “Abducted and”). Consequently, Acholi on Acholi violence has become commonplace since the advent of the LRA insurgency, and it is this ethnic group that has suffered the greatest losses as a result of the current conflict.

Roman Catholic Missions, Clergy, and their Affiliates are the most recent targets of LRA aggression. Historically, the Roman Catholic Church has played a key diplomatic role in the conflict. On numerous occasions, church leaders have acted as mediators between the LRA and the government in negotiating the terms of ceasefires and peace talks (AP: “Archbishop: Ugandan” 16 Jun 2003). Individual church officials, as well as organizations like the Acholi Religious Leaders Peace Initiative (ARLPI), also possess some of the most prominent voices in advocating for peace nationally and internationally. Church missions provide the unstable northern region of Uganda with many of its social services, including education and health care. Moreover, thousands of Ugandan civilians have sought refuge in church compounds after being displaced by LRA violence (BBC: “Uganda ’s atrocious” 12 Jun 2003).

In recent months, however, the prominent role of the Roman Catholic Church in the Acholi region has attracted the LRA’s hostility. In June 2003, LRA leader Kony shifted away from his traditionally political agenda and ordered violence against the Church, bluntly declaring,

“Catholic missions must be destroyed, priests and missionaries killed in cold blood, and nuns beaten black and blue” (BBC: “Church fears” 17 Jun 2003).

In response to this threat, missionary leader Fr. Carlos Rodriguez stated, “We have no reason to doubt the message was authentic…In the last five weeks the LRA has burned, bombed and desecrated churches on nine occasions” (BBC: “Church fears” 17 Jun 2003). Furthermore, Catholic seminarians and schoolchildren have been targeted for abductions, and numerous missions have been looted and destroyed.

Additional evidence of an LRA campaign against Roman Catholics was discovered in July 2003 when UPDF soldiers recovered a map from an abandoned LRA campsite in the Katakwi district (New Vision: “Rebels target” 31 Jul 2003). The locally drawn map highlights most of the Catholic missions in the area, thus suggesting a pre-planned targeting of Roman Catholics. This organized pursuit of the destruction of a specific religious group indicates that Kony has begun infusing his political rebellion with acts of religiously motivated genocide, as it is defined by Article 2 of the 1948 United Nations Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Genocide (see Legal Appendix).

The Nature of LRA Abuse

Raids on civilian populations constitute the principal method of terrorization employed by the LRA (ReliefWeb: “Eyewitness: Children”). Rural villages and internally displaced persons (IDP) camps are highly susceptible to LRA infiltration and are therefore the primary targets of rebel attacks. During these assaults, the LRA kills civilians, abducts children, torches huts, and loots homes, businesses, and humanitarian organizations for food, medical supplies, radio equipment, and other valuable items. Since the advent of Operation Iron Fist, the attacks have reached epidemic levels in Acholiland and have spread to districts in eastern Uganda (New Vision: “Uganda : LRA” 8 Jul 2003). The raids have victimized and displaced over a million civilians while jeopardizing road safety, food security, and humanitarian activity in the region. UPDF efforts have thus far been unsuccessful in effectively protecting civilians against these LRA aggressions (IRIN: “Uganda : Civilians” 2 Apr 2003).

Massacres: Civilians are frequently massacred as the LRA continues its reign of terror across the northern and eastern regions of Uganda (Reuters: “Uganda ’s Lords” 25 Aug 2003). Killings most often occur during LRA assaults on villages, refugee camps, and vehicle convoys. LRA rebels murder civilians indiscriminately: children, adults, and the elderly are victimized during attacks. Recently, the LRA commenced large-scale attacks on IDP camps in northern Uganda . In its most devastating attack in the past ten years, the LRA massacred over 200 civilians during the February 21, 2004 assault on the Barlonyo IDP camp in the Lira district. Maintaining or increasing regional instability and creating a “climate of crisis” seems to be the sole purpose of these massacres, as they have proven fruitless in furthering the LRA’s declared political objectives (IRIN: “Army says” 5 Jul 2002).

Recent Instances of Abuse:

Date: February 21, 2004

Victims: At least 200 killed

Description: LRA rebels killed over 200 people during its most deadly massacre of civilians in the past ten years. Approximately 300 rebels ambushed the Barlonyo IDP camp in the Lira district dressed as regular army soldiers and armed with assault rifles and artillery. The group overwhelmed the local defense force posted to protect the camp and subsequently massacred the camp’s inhabitants. Numerous civilians were burned alive when rebels torched their homes after ordering them inside at gunpoint. Many fleeing the assault were shot, bludgeoned, or hacked to death. Local leaders counted 192 bodies at the scene, while Roman Catholic missionaries reported the discovery of 32 bodies near the campsite. Additionally, five victims injured during the attack have since died at the Lira hospital. These reports bring the unofficial death count to nearly 260 (IRIN News: “Uganda : Fear” 24 Feb 2004 ).

Date: February 14, 2004

Victims: 5 killed

Description: Five civilians were hacked to death after being abducted by the LRA. The bodies were discovered in the jungle of the northern Gulu district four days after the victims were reported missing (News24.com: “Five hacked” 14 Feb 2004 ).

Date: February 10, 2004

Victims: 15 killed

Description: Fifteen people were killed during an LRA ambush on Apatonyanga in Abako sub-county of the Ojul parish. Ten of the victims were residents of the village while the other five were abductees from other areas (New Vision: “LRA Kills” 10 Feb 2004 ).

Date: February 9, 2004

Victims: 10 killed

Description: LRA rebels clubbed ten farmers to death after abducting them from Ojuru village in the Lira district. The farmers were assaulted after returning to the village to tend their gardens (The Advertiser: “Ten dead” 10 Feb 2004 ).

Date: February 5, 2004

Victims: 52 killed, over 70 seriously wounded

Description: The LRA massacred at least 52 people during a large-scale attack on Abia IDP camp in the northern region of Lira district. At least 300 rebels ambushed the camp, subsequently overwhelming the UPDF and assaulting civilians. The rebels were reportedly armed with machine guns and mortar bombs. Civilians were bludgeoned and shot and their homes set ablaze during the attack (IRIN News: “Rebels Kill” 5 Feb 2004 ).

Date: January 2, 2004

Victims: 20 killed

Description: At least twenty people were hacked to death by the LRA during a series of rebel ambushes on villages in the Kitgum district (AFP).

Date: December 31, 2003

Victims: 3 killed

Description: Three elderly men were burned to death when LRA rebels ambushed an IDP camp in the Gulu district (New Vision: “LRA Kill” 31 Dec 2003 ).

Date: November 26, 2003

Victims: 9 killed

Description: The LRA killed nine people who were attending the funeral of an individual who had been killed by the rebels the previous day. Approximately thirty rebels corralled the victims and took them to a nearby swamp where they were subsequently bludgeoned to death with sticks and stones (New Vision: “LRA kills” 29 Nov 2003 ).

Date: November 22-23, 2003

Victims: 10 killed

Description: At least ten people were massacred during a series of LRA ambushes in the Lira district. The rebels killed four people in Gomi village, five in Dokolo, and another individual in Agrero (AFP).

Date: November 18, 2003

Victims: 12 killed

Description: Members of the LRA bludgeoned 12 people to death, including nine abducted children that had been held captive by the rebels (IRIN News: “Uganda : Rebels” 18 Nov 2003 ).

Date: November 14, 2003

Victims: 10 killed, unknown number abducted

Description: Ten people were hacked to death and numerous others were abducted during an LRA raid in the Lira district. A Roman Catholic church was also looted by the rebels (New Vision: “LRA rebels” 11 Nov 2003 ).

Date: November 5, 2003

Victims: 59 killed

Description: The LRA massacred a total of 59 people during a series of ambushes in the Lira district. Thirty civilians were killed in the villages of Awayapiny and Alanyi, twenty people were killed in Omari, and an additional nine were massacred at Omoro Primary School (BBC: “Scores Killed” 8 Nov 2003 ).

Date: November 3, 2003

Victims: 5 killed

Description: LRA rebels killed five people, including three students from Kaberamaido Secondary School , during a raid in the Kaberamaido district. The Okapel and Alipa trading centers, located near the school, were also looted during the raid (Agence France Presse).

Date: October 29, 2003

Victims: 13 killed, several abducted

Description: Thirteen civilians were killed by LRA rebels during a raid in the Lira district. Most of the victims were captured, bound, and clubbed to death. The rebels also abducted several people during the ambush (IRIN: “Uganda : LRA” 31 Oct 2003 ).

Date: October 13, 2003

Victims: 22 killed, approximately 20 seriously injured

Description: A group of fifteen LRA rebels ambushed the Aparaliek market in Alanyi village, killing twenty-two people and injuring numerous others. Those killed were corralled from a local bar and fired upon by the rebels (New Vision: “Kony kills” 15 Oct 2003 ; AFP: “Rebel attack” 14 Oct 2003 ).

Date: October 9, 2003

Victims: 11 killed

Description: Eleven civilians were killed when LRA rebels ambushed a group of men belonging to the Arrow Group, a pro-government militia. The rebels also looted supplies during the attack (Reuters: “Sixteen killed” 10 Oct 2003 ).

Date: September 27, 2003

Victims: 8 killed

Description: Eight civilians were killed during an LRA attack on Olekai village. The village was under the protection of the Arrow Group, which lost ten members during the attack (New Vision: “LRA kill” 29 Sep 2003 ).

Date: September 26, 2003

Victims: 5 killed

Description: Five civilians were killed when LRA rebels fired upon a group of pedestrians during an evening attack (AFP: “Ten rebels” 27 Sep 2003 ).

Date: September 24-25, 2003

Victims: 9 killed

Description: The bodies of nine civilians were discovered between the towns of Kulu and Obalanga over the course of a two-day period. The victims were apparently killed as they fled an LRA attack on the remote village of Aminir . The bodies of ten rebels were also recovered from the area (News24.com: “Rebels kill” 27 Sep 2003 ; AFP: “Ten rebels” 27 Sep 2003 ).

Date: September 24, 2003

Monitor, The. “LRA now targets Catholic Church.” 8 Jun 2003.

Monitor, The. “LRA Rebels Abduct Headmaster, 2 Kids.” 4 Aug 2003. Online. Lexis-Nexis® Academic

Universe. 4 Aug 2003.

Monitor, The. “Renewed Fighting in Katakwi.” 12 Aug 2003.

Monitor, The. “Rebels abduct 29 in Adjumani.” 19 Jun 2003.

Monitor, The. “Rebels abduct 41 from Lacor.” 12 May 2003.

Monitor, The. “Rebels kill 20 in fresh raids.” 2 Jun 2003.

Monitor, The. “Silent death in Kitgum.” 6 Apr 2003.

Monitor, The. “Soldiers killed in chopper accident.” 22 Apr 2003.

Monitor, The. “UPDF rushes more troops to West Nile.” 31 May 2003.

News24.com. “Five hacked to death.” 14 Feb 2004.

News24.com. “Rebel attack claims 22 lives.” 14 Oct 2003.

News24.com. “Rebels kill 9 in Uganda attack.” 27 Sep 2003.

News24.com. “Rebels kill two in Uganda.” 19 Jul 2003.

New Vision. “10 Feared Dead in LRA Ambush .” 22 Apr 2003.

New Vision. “14 Killed in Bus Ambush.” 29 May 2003.

New Vision. “LRA hits Atiak, Adjumani Church.” 19 Jun 2003.

New Vision. “LRA hits Lira villages.” 30 Jun 2003.

New Vision. “LRA Kill 4 in Katakwi.” 4 Aug 2003.

New Vision. “LRA Kill 10 Arrow Boys in Katakwi.” 29 Sep 2003.

New Vision. “LRA kill five in Soroti.” 19 Aug 2003.

New Vision. “LRA kills 6 civilians.” 1 Apr 2003.

New Vision. “LRA kills 7.” 8 Apr 2003.

New Vision. “LRA kills 15 More in Lira.” 10 Feb 2004.

New Vision. “LRA Raid Catholic Mission.” 26 Apr 2003.

New Vision. “LRA Raids Laroo Ward.” 2 Aug 2003.

New Vision. “LRA Rebels abduct 44 Seminarians.” 12 May 2003.

New Vision. “LRA rebels hack four to death in Soroti.” 1 Sep 2003.

New Vision. “LRA rebels kill 10 civilians.” 11 Nov 2003.

New Vision. “LRA kill 3 in Gulu camp.” 31 Dec 2003.

New Vision. “LRA kills nine in Lira.” 29 Nov 2003.

New Vision. “LRA Rebels Murder Lc3 Boss in Katakwi.” 8 Jul 2003.

New Vision. “LRA shoots brick maker.” 20 Mar 2003.

New Vision. “Rebels Abduct Ex-Emorimor.” 8 Aug 2003.

New Vision. “Rebels displace million – WFP.” 26 Sep 2003.

New Vision. “Uganda: Thirty-nine, not 290, abducted by rebels on 23^rd April in North – Army.” 26 Apr

2003. Online. Lexis Nexis® Academic Universe. 1 Jul 2003.

New Vision. “Ugandan Rebels on a Campaign Against Church.” 25 Jun 2003.

Panafrican News Agency. “Ugandan rebels abduct 30 seminary students near Gulu.” 11 May 2003.

Online. Lexis Nexis® Academic Universe. 12 May 2003.

ReliefWeb. “Eyewitness: Children March in northern Uganda.” 12 Aug 2003.

Reuters. “Sixteen killed in Uganda fighting.” 10 Oct 2003.

Reuters AlertNet. “A voice for Uganda’s forgotten crisis.” 4 Jul 2003.

Reuters AlertNet. “Uganda army says rebels kill 25 in bus ambush.” 2 Sep 2003.

Reuters. “Uganda’s Lords Army Tightens Grip on North.” 25 Aug 2003.

South African Press Association. “22 hacked to death in Uganda.” 1 Sep 2003.

SwissInfo. “Uganda rebels abduct schoolgirls in night raid.” 25 Jul 2003.

<www.swissinfo.org/sen/Swissinfo.html_siteSect=41&sid=3980449>

U.S. Department of State Bureau of African Affairs. “Background Note: Uganda.” Jun 2003.

Voice of America (VOA). “Allegations of Sudanese Support for Uganda Rebel Group Unlikely to Affect

Military Protocol.” 27 Aug 2003.